The Prince

Before The Prince, political writing typically followed the "mirrors for princes" genre—handbooks advising rulers on how to be virtuous, godly, and just. Machiavelli upended this by arguing that the "practical effect" of an action is more important than any abstract ideal. He wrote in vernacular Italian rather than academic Latin, signaling that his insights were intended for the real-world grit of the Renaissance city-state rather than the isolated ivory tower or the church.

This shift created a direct conflict with the dominant Catholic and scholastic doctrines of the time. By suggesting that immoral acts are sometimes necessary to achieve political glory, Machiavelli decoupled politics from traditional ethics. This pragmatic, often cold-eyed view of power is why the work remains the foundational text of modern political philosophy and the primary source of the term "Machiavellian."

While hereditary rulers can rely on ancient tradition and the natural disposition of their subjects to stay in power, a "new prince" has no such safety net. Machiavelli’s innovation was focusing on the ruler who must establish himself in defiance of custom. He argues that newness creates inherent instability; the prince must satisfy his followers' expectations while knowing he will inevitably disappoint some of them.

To survive, a new ruler must be prepared to be an "armed prophet." Machiavelli notes that people are naturally resistant to new laws because they are uncertain of the outcome, while those who benefited from the old order will fight change fiercely. Therefore, a prince must have the means to force continued support once the initial enthusiasm of his subjects wanes.

Machiavelli categorizes states by how they are governed, which determines how a conqueror should approach them. For example, a kingdom like 16th-century France (decentralized with many lords) is easy to enter because there are always malcontents to help you, but difficult to hold because those same lords can turn against you. Conversely, a centralized state like the Ottoman Empire is hard to conquer because the people are servants to one master, but once the ruling bloodline is eliminated, it is very easy to hold.

The most dangerous states to conquer are "free states" that live under their own laws. Because the memory of liberty never dies, Machiavelli offers three stark options for the prince: go live there personally, install a loyal oligarchy, or—his most frequent recommendation—simply ruin them. He warns that if a prince does not destroy a city accustomed to freedom, he should expect to be destroyed by it.

Machiavelli makes a subtle but vital distinction between power and greatness. He uses the example of Agathocles of Syracuse, who rose to power by massacring the city's elite. While Machiavelli admits that such "savage cruelty and inhumanity" can successfully acquire an empire, he insists it cannot be called true "virtue" and cannot lead to glory.

For the prince who must use cruelty, timing is everything. Machiavelli advises that all necessary "wicked deeds" should be executed in a single stroke. This "surgical" use of violence allows the subjects to slowly forget the injury, whereas a prince who hesitates or drags out his cruelties must "keep a knife by his side" forever, unable to ever truly trust his citizenry or find peace.

Success in The Prince is a tug-of-war between virtù (drive, talent, and resourcefulness) and fortuna (luck or the favor of others). Those who rise by luck—such as Cesare Borgia, who gained power through his father, the Pope—often find it easy to get to the top but nearly impossible to stay there. Their power is dependent on the goodwill of others, which can be withdrawn at any moment.

Conversely, those who rise through their own skill, like Moses or Cyrus, have a harder climb but a much more secure reign. By relying on their own resources and "armed prophecy," they build a foundation that does not crumble when the winds of fortune change. Machiavelli uses Borgia as a tragic example of a man who did everything right with his virtù but was ultimately undone by a stroke of extraordinary bad luck.